COORDINATION AND CONTROL
Define the following terms:
·
Coordination
·
Stimulus
·
Receptors
·
Response
COORDINATION
The harmonious functioning of interrelated organs and parts is called Coordination.
STIMULUS
Any change either in internal or external environment of an organism is
called Stimulus.
For instance; light, temperature, pressure, touch etc.
RECEPTORS
Specialized cells which are responsible to sense the stimulus are called
Receptors.
For example:
In human, there are four types of receptors to sense the various stimuli.
· Eyes (Photoreceptors)
· Ears (Sound receptors)
· Nose (Chemo receptors)
· Skin (Sensory receptors)
· Tongue (Taste receptors)
RESPONSE
Behavior
of an organism that results from an internal or external stimulus is called
Response.
How many types of coordination are there in human body? Briefly describe each.
There
are two types of coordination in human body.
i.
Chemical
coordination
ii.
Nervous
coordination
CHEMICAL COORDINATION
The
coordination that takes place by hormone cells releases from special cells or
glands is called chemical coordination.
Hormones
are releases to perform either stimulation or inhibition.
It
is slower than chemical coordination.
NERVOUS COORDINATION
The
type of coordination that takes place by neurons in sequential manner to
response to specific stimulus is called nervous coordination.
It
is more rapid than chemical coordination.
Differentiate between chemical coordination and nervous coordination.
|
Chemical coordination |
Nervous coordination |
|
It
is performed by special secretary cells. |
It
is performed by neurons. |
|
Signals
are purely chemical |
Signals
are purely electro-chemical |
|
Transmission
takes place by nerve fibers. |
Transmission
takes place by blood plasma. |
|
Response
takes place after a long duration. |
Response
takes place after a shorter duration. |
|
It
is primitive type of coordination |
It
is secondary type of coordination. |
|
It
occurs in almost all type of living organisms |
It
occurs in animals only. |
Why is nervous coordination faster than chemical coordination?
The
key difference between nervous coordination and chemical coordination is that
nervous coordination is done by nervous system via nerve impulses, while
chemical coordination of the body is done by endocrine system via hormones.
Which of the two coordination types is better and why?
The
vital activities of the body are controlled by nervous system and endocrine
system. So, there are two types of coordination.
· Nervous coordination
· Chemical coordination
Both types of coordination are essential for
the human body because of functioning of inter-related organs.
Give at least one reason why leaves of ‘Touch me not’ plant fold or closed when touched?
The
pressure or touch stimulates the leaves of ‘Touch me not’ plant to close as
response. After a while, leaves of the plant restore their original state.
Why the ‘Sun flower’ moves towards the sun?
The
turning of the Sun flower towards the sun is mainly associated with a hormone
called Auxin. It’s a bit slower movement.
What is Nervous System [NS]? What are its types?
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The
system of nerve cells and fibers which transmit nerve impulses between parts of
the body is called Nervous System.
NS
consists of mainly two major divisions:
· Central Nervous System
(CNS)
· Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
What do you know about Central Nervous System?
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The
major commanding and control center where stimuli are reported and decisions
are made. The decisions in the form of response are transfer to affected
organs.
Central
Nervous System consists of two components, which are:
· Brain
· Spinal cord
Write a short note on Brain.
BRAIN
Brain
is considered as control center of the body. It is located in the skull cavity
and surrounded by meninges. The empty cavities inside the brain are filled with
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which is actually responsible to protect the brain
from external pressures.
The
human brain consists of the following parts:
· Cerebrum
· Hippocampus
· Thalamus
· Hypothalamus
· Mid brain
· Cerebellum
· Medulla oblongata
Write a short note on Cerebrum.
CEREBRUM
Cerebrum
is the largest part of brain which is responsible to make decision. It is
considered as seat of intelligence, conscious activities and memory.
Cerebrum
consists of two hemispheres, i.e. Right and left cerebral hemispheres. The
right cerebral hemisphere regulates the left side of the body while the left
cerebral hemisphere to the right side of the body.
The
outer part of cortex is gray in color and consists of cell bodies of neurons
while inner part is white in color which consists of cell processes i.e. hair
like outgrowths.
Cortex
can further be divided into four parts on the basis of their functions.
· Frontal lobe: it is
associated with thoughts, emotions etc.
· Parietal lobe: It is
associated with sensations like pressure, temperature, language processing etc.
· Temporal Lobe: It is
associated with hearing and speech
· Occipital Lobe: It is
associated with sight and vision.
What are the locations and functions of following parts of Brain?
· Thalamus
· Hypothalamus
· Hippocampus
· Amygdala
· Mid brain
· Cerebellum
Part |
Location |
Function |
|
Thalamus |
It
lies just above the hypothalamus |
It
sends the stimuli to appropriate part of cortex. |
|
Hypothalamus |
Undersurface
of the brain |
It
controls the blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, thirst etc. It
also maintains homeostasis. |
|
Hippocampus |
Medial
temporal lobe |
It
is associated with long term memory. |
|
Amygdala |
Medial
temporal lobe (Anterior
to Hippocampus) |
It
is involved in emotions of pain and pleasure. |
|
Mid
brain |
Between
forebrain and hind brain |
It
is associated with sense of vision and smell. |
|
Cerebellum |
Below
the dorsal side of cerebrum. |
It
controls precision. It
controls the activities like writing, drawing, painting, crafting etc. |
|
Medulla
oblongata |
Above
the spinal cord |
It
control the automatic activities like heart beat, blood pressure, coughing,
swallowing, hiccupping, food digestion etc. |
|
Pons |
Ventral
side of medulla oblongata |
Control
facial expressions. It
also helps in sleep and awakening. |
Why does the intelligence level of persons differ
from each other, even though the components of brain are same?
Because
of a combination of genetic factors and individual life experience, no two
people have same intelligence levels.
What do you know about Spinal cord?
SPINAL CORD
It
is a butterfly shaped, thick tube like structure which arise from medulla
oblongata and extends down through vertebral column.
Its
outer part is white matter while inner part is gray matter. It is control
center for few reflexes.
Write note on Peripheral Nervous System.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Peripheral
nervous system consists of numerous nerves which arise from CNS and connect it
to different organs of the body.
Each
nerve consists of bundles of axons of both sensory and motor neurons.
PNS
consists of:
· Somatic nervous system:
it is associated with skeletal muscles and glands
· Autonomic nervous
system: It is associated with involuntary functions like digestion, breathing
etc.
Write note on Neurons.
NEURONS
The
functional cells of the nervous system are termed as neurons. The function of
neuron is to generate and conduct neuronal signal or nerve impulse. Typically,
a neuron consists of a cell body or soma and cell processes.
· Cell body or soma
· The cell processes
Cell
processes usually have insulated coverings, termed as myelin sheath to ensure
the uninterrupted transmission of nerve impulse. The cell processes are of two
types, dendrites and axon.
· Dendrites receive
stimulus while,
· Axon transmits the
command either to some other neuron or some effector cells.
What is reflex action?
REFLEX ACTION
The
automatic and preplanned responses are called Reflex actions. Some of the
reflexes are regulated by brain while some regulates by spinal cord.
Example
includes; knee jerk, blinking of eye, hand withdrawal etc.
How reflex action works by reflex arc?
OR
What is reflex arc? How does it take place?
REFLEX ARC
The
pathway of reflex action is termed as reflex arc. It is the shortest path of
reflex action which includes only two neurons i.e. sensory neuron and motor
neuron.
What is Eye? How does the eye perform the phenomenon of vision?
EYE
Eyes
are the organs of sight. The physiology of eye is like the principle of simple
camera that collects light and diverts it into a sensory layer or Retina.
Retina has sensory cells called rods and cones which are responsible to convert
light signals into nerve impulses and transfer these messages to brain.
Describe the structure of Eye.
STRUCTURE OF EYE
Eyes
are located in bony socket for protection.
The
structure of eye can be understood by:
· Sclera (white part of
eye) surrounds and protects the eyes.
· In front of sclera, a
transparent layer cornea is present.
· Behind cornea, watery
filled space aqueous humor is present.
· Colored part or iris
with a central hole, Pupil is located behind the cornea.
· The pupil appears
usually black in color.
· Immediately behind the
iris, a crystalline lens suspended by a ring of circular muscles known as
ciliary body.
· The inner most layer of
eye is Retina where the image forms by cornea and lens.
· The contraction of
ciliary muscles causes changes in the shape of the eye to adjust the focus.
What is Pupil Reflex?
PUPIL REFLEX
Pupil
is responsible to balance the intensity of light. In case of bright light, it
protects the retina by constricting itself so less amount of light falls on
retina. Vice versa, in dim light condition, the pupil dilates to allow more
light to fall on retina.
What is accommodation?
ACCOMMODATION
It
is an automatic process of altering focus to get sharper image of the near
objects.
For
example, to altering the focus to get the sharper image, the ciliary muscles contract
allowing the elastic lens to become thicker and more convex.
Name
the vitamin which is needed for vision. Also name the diseases that can be
caused by the deficiency of vitamin A.
Vitamin
A is needed for proper vision. It helps the cornea to be well lubricated.
The
deficiency of Vitamin A can lead to corneal ulcers and blindness.
Briefly describe Short sightedness and long sightedness.
SHORT SIGHTEDNESS
Short
sightedness is medically known as Myopia. It refers to the difficulty in
focusing the distant objects while the near objects are focused normally.
This
condition can be altered by the use of contact lens or spectacles.
LONG SIGHTEDNESS
Long
sightedness is medically known as Hyperopia. It refers to the difficulty in
focusing the near objects while the distant objects are focused normally.
This
condition can be altered by the use of contact lens or spectacles.
Describe color blindness.
COLOR BLINDNESS
It
is the disability of vision in which vision one cannot distinguish certain
colors such as blue and yellow or red and green.
CAUSE
· Defect in cones of
retina
Why driving license is not issued to color blind person?
A
color blind person cannot distinguish between different colors. If a driver is
color blind, so he will be unable to distinguish the colors and can lead to
accident.
Hence,
it is risky to issue a driving license to color blind person.
What is the role of Ibn al Haitham and Ali Ibn e Sina about the structure of eye?
ROLE OF IBN AL HIATHAM
Ibn
al Haitham is considered as ‘Father of modern optics’. He was the first person
to consider vision as a result of bouncing back of light from an object and
then enter our eyes.
His
most important book on optics is ‘Kitab ul Manazir’.
ROLE OF ALI IBN E SINA
He
described more than 100 different eye diseases and their treatment in his
famous book ‘Memorandum of the oculist’.
Describe the structure of Ear.
EAR
Ear
is an organ of hearing and balance.
STRUCTURE OF EAR
It
consists of three parts which are:
· Outer ear
· Middle ear
· Inner ear
OUTER EAR
The
outer ear consists of ear pinna, ear canal and tympanic membrane or ear drum.
· Ear pinna composed of
folds of skin and cartilage. Pinna leads into the ear canal which is closed at
the inner end by tympanic membrane.
· Ear canal has wax to
protect to trap the dust and foreign particles.
· The outer ear collects
and transmits the sound waves.
MIDDLE EAR
Middle
ear is connected to inner nasal cavity through Eustachian tube. It is
responsible to receive sound waves from air outside and transmits it into the fluid
in the inner ear.
Middle ear is composed of three moveable bones;
· Malleus
· Incus
· Stapes
INNER EAR
Inner
membrane consists of cochlea and semicircular canals. Both are fluid filled
canals which contains sensory hair cells. These sensory cells transform sound
waves into nerve impulse.
The
function of cochlea is to hear while semicircular canals are associated with
balance of body.
Describe the role of ear in balance.
ROLE OF EAR IN BALANCE
Ears
are not only responsible for hearing but they are also important for balance.
The
ear contains a vestibular system for alerting the brain to pressure and
position changes.
The
three semi circular canals are interconnected to each other and lie right angle
to each other. All these three canals along with vestibule are responsible to
maintain the posture of the body.
Describe the nervous disorders.
NERVOUS DISORDERS
Depending
upon the nature of disorders, nervous disorders can be of two different types.
· Vascular (For example;
Paralysis)
· Functional (For example;
epilepsy)
What is mean by endocrine and exocrine glands?
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
The
glands that secrete the hormones without duct are called endocrine glands.
OR
The
ductless gland is called endocrine gland.
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Those
glands that secrete the hormones within the duct are called exocrine glands.
What do you mean by Feedback system?
OR
What is feedback system?
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
A
physiological regulatory system in a living body that works to return the body
to its normal internal state is called feedback system.
Feedback
system is of two types:
· Positive feedback
mechanism
· Negative feedback
mechanism
What is positive feedback mechanism?
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
A
process in which the end products of an action cause more of that action to
occur in a feedback loop is called positive feedback mechanism.
For
instance;
Release
of oxytocin during labor
What is negative feedback mechanism?
NEGATIVE FEEDNACK
MECHANISM
a regulatory mechanism in which a 'stimulus' causes an opposite 'output'
in order to maintain an ideal level of whatever is being regulated
For
instance;
Insulin
and glucagon regulates the blood glucose level by negative feedback. During
this process, one event triggers another, which triggers another, to keep the
blood glucose level balanced.
Name the important glands of the human body.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
· Pituitary gland
· Thyroid gland
· Parathyroid gland
· Pancreas
· Adrenal glands
· Gonads
Write brief note on Pituitary Gland.
PITUITARY GLAND
It
is a pea-shaped gland located at the base of brain. It is considered as the
master gland of the human body as it controls the functions of many endocrine
glands. Pituitary gland consists of two lobes:
· Anterior pituitary gland
· Posterior pituitary
gland
|
Hormone |
Site of action |
Effects |
|
Thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) |
Thyroid
gland |
Stimulate
thyroid secretions |
|
Somatotropin
OR Growth hormone (GH) |
Bones,
cartilage, muscles |
Growth
in children and normal body structure. Metabolism
in adults |
|
Follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) |
Gonads (Testes
or Ovaries) |
Stimulates
gonads to produce gametes |
|
Luteinizing
hormone (LH) |
Gonads
(Testes
or Ovaries) |
Development
and release of gametes |
|
Prolactin
hormone |
Mammary
gland |
Development
of mammary glands and breast tissues |
|
ACTH |
Adrenal
cortex of Kidneys |
Controls
the production of cortisol (which controls blood sugar level) |
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
GLAND
Posterior
pituitary gland stores and release hormones of hypothalamus. Example includes
ADH oxytocin.
· ADH is responsible to
maintain the blood pressure, blood volume, tissue water etc.
· Oxytocin is responsible
to stimulate contraction and social behavior.
Write a short note on Thyroid gland.
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid
gland is butterfly shaped endocrine gland located in the trachea at the base of
neck.
The
important secretions of thyroid glands are as under:
· Thyroxin [It contains
Iodine which regulates the metabolism, growth and mental development]
· Calcitonin [It lowers
the increased calcium level of the blood]
Why thyroid gland is swell up and give the name of disease.
OR
What is Goiter?
GOITER
The
irregular growth of thyroid gland is known as Goiter.
This
condition is caused by the deficiency of iodine in the diet.
Signs and
symptoms
· Swelling in neck
· Difficulty in swallowing
· Coughing
· Hoarseness
· Dizziness
What do you know about Pancreas?
PANCREAS
Pancreas
is a leaf like structure, located in the abdominal cavity. Pancreas is
considered as both endocrine and exocrine gland.
The
functional cells of Pancreas are called “Islets of Langerhan’s”. These cells
releases two hormones called:
· Insulin [It helps to
decrease the blood glucose level up to a normal level]
· Glucagon [It helps to increase the blood glucose level
up to a normal level]
What is the role of Islet's of Langerhans cell?
The
islets of Langerhans cell contain alpha, beta and delta cells which are
responsible to produce glucagon, insulin and somatostatin respectively.
What is Diabetes Mellitus (DM)?
DIABETES MELLITUS
It
is a condition in which ability of the body to produce and respond to the
hormone ‘insulin’ is impaired.
Due
to such condition, the blood glucose level gets high.
Effects
· Frequent urination with
excessive glucose excretion
Signs and symptoms
· Thirsty,
· Hungry,
· Weight loss,
· Tiredness.
How can diabetes mellitus be managed?
MANAGEMENT OF DIABETES
MELLITUS
DM
can be managed by the following adaptations.
· Balanced diet
· Exercise
· Medication
· Blood glucose monitoring
Explain some ways of management of Diabetes Mellitus.
OR
What are the ways of dietary management of
DM?
DIETARY MANAGEMENTS OF
DM
· Appropriate physical
activity should be maintained.
· Diet must be balanced by
variety of foods.
· ‘3 Low, 1 High
Principle’ should be followed.
· Controlling energy
intake.
What is meant by ‘3 Low, 1 High Principle’?
3 LOW, 1 HIGH PRINCIPLE
It
is usually prescribed to Diabetes patients that mean one should take low fat,
low sodium, low sugars and high fibers in diet.
Draw blood glucose chart.
|
Blood glucose chart |
|||
|
mg/
dl |
Fasting |
After eating |
2-3 hours After eating |
|
Normal |
80-100 |
170-200 |
120-140 |
|
Impaired
glucose |
101-125 |
190-230 |
140-160 |
|
Diabetic |
126+ |
220-300 |
200+ |
Write a short note on Adrenal Gland.
ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal
gland is a triangular shaped endocrine gland, located at the top of each
kidney. Adrenal gland consists of following two parts:
· Adrenal cortex [Outer
part]
· Adrenal medulla [Inner
part]
|
Adrenal
cortex |
Steroid |
It
is responsible to regulate the metabolism of body, maintenance of water and
salts. |
|
Cortisol |
Control
illness and inflammation of the body. |
|
|
Adrenal
medulla |
Emergency
hormones (Nephrine
and Nor-Epinephrine) |
· Increase cardiac
output. · Raise blood glucose
level |
What is “emergency hormone” and why it is
named so?
Adrenaline
hormone (Epinephrine and Nor-Epinephrine) are known as emergency hormones.
Because they initiate a rapid action that helps the person thinks rapidly and
respond to stress.
It
raises the rate of metabolism, dilating blood vessels, increase cardiac output,
raise blood glucose level etc.
Write a brief note on Gonads.
GONADS
Gonads
are the reproductive organs i.e. testes (in male) and ovaries (in female).
TESTES
Testes
are egg shaped organs located in a pouch called scrotum, outside the human
body. Testes releases hormone called testosterone. The function of testosterone
is to:
· Develop secondary
characteristics in male
· Cause deepening of voice
· Appear moustache and
beard etc.
· Strengthen Muscle and
mass
· Produce RBCs and Sperm
cells
OVARY
Ovaries
are grape size female reproductive structures, located on each side of uterus
in abdominal cavity.
Ovaries
secrete following two hormones:
· Estrogen [it is
responsible for the development of secondary characteristics in female]
· Progesterone [It is
responsible to maintain and prepare uterus for pregnancy]
What are the possible reasons of paralysis?
PARALYSIS
This
condition is characterized as the partial or complete loss of controlled
movement by the inability to contract one or more muscles. It can lead to the
loss of sensation.
Causes
· Bleeding or blood clot
in specific parts of brain
· Brain injury
· Spinal cord injury
· Nerve injury
What is Epilepsy?
EPILEPSY
This
condition is characterized as the alteration in one or more function or
recurrent seizures.
Causes
· Abnormal electrical activity
in brain
· Sudden flash lights
Effects
· Unconsciousness
· Stiffness of the body
· Twitches or jerks
Treatment
Medications
